Ljudje smo
pogosto prepričani, da smo se močno oddaljili od drugih organizmov in dosegli
izjemno stopnjo razvoja. A če pomislimo, da se le približno 1% naših genov
razlikuje od genov vinske mušice drozofile (Drosophilidae), lahko upravičeno
sklepamo, da se ljudje obnašamo na zelo podobne načine kot vsa ostala živa
bitja. Tudi mi gojimo recipročni altruizem, goljufamo, pa tudi zajedamo oziroma
parazitiramo.
V zgodovini
političnega mišljenja se metafora parazita pojavlja znova in znova, kot bi se
misleci intuitivno zavedali, da je parazitizem ena temeljnih sil družbenega
življenja. Marx je kapital opisoval kot »mrtvo delo, ki se prisesa na živo delo
in ga izčrpava«, kot organizem brez lastne vitalnosti, ki lahko preživi le
tako, da se hrani z energijo drugih. Lenin je govoril o »parazitskem
kapitalizmu«, ki se razrašča na račun družbe kot tumor, ki raste iz telesa, a
mu hkrati jemlje moč.
Zanimanje za
parazite v kulturi in znanosti danes spet narašča. Japonska pisateljica Hideaki
Sena je leta 1995 napisala znanstvenofantastično novelo Parasite Eve, po
kateri nastajajo film, videoigre in manga. Bong Joon-hojev film Parazit
je postal globalna metafora družbenega zajedanja. Ameriški ekonomist Michael
Hudson pa opozarja na ekonomski parazitizem, kjer finančne elite izčrpavajo
realno gospodarstvo, ne da bi mu karkoli vračale. Da parazitizem ni več le
ekonomska ali politična metafora, temveč postaja tehnološka realnost, je
pokazal Jaron Lanier. Digitalne platforme, pravi, ne samo opazujejo ljudi,
temveč jih preoblikujejo. Algoritmi se prisesajo na človeško pozornost, jo
preusmerjajo, preoblikujejo in hranijo sami sebe. Tako kot biološki paraziti spreminjajo
vedenje svojih gostiteljev, tudi digitalni sistemi spreminjajo vedenje
uporabnikov — tiho, neopazno, a vztrajno. In morda je prav v tem najbolj
srhljiva resnica: da so paraziti, o katerih so govorili revolucionarni misleci,
danes dobili svojo najbolj izpopolnjeno, algoritmično obliko.
Preučevanje
parazitov in njihove sposobnosti, da spreminjajo vedenje gostiteljev in vmesnih
gostiteljev, odpira povsem novo področje v nevroznanosti. Čuden, mračen,
srhljiv in hkrati fascinanten svet parazitov ima lahko večji vpliv na nas, kot
si predstavljamo, razlaga nevroznanstvenik prof. Robert Sapolsky. Paraziti
vstopajo v naše organizme in jih izkoriščajo. Njihovo osupljivo vedenje je
usmerjeno v dokončanje lastnega življenjskega cikla, povečanje števila
potomcev, izogibanje imunskemu sistemu gostitelja in zagotavljanje prenosa na
nove gostitelje. V ta namen so razvili širok nabor izjemno učinkovitih
vedenjskih strategij in so zato ena najuspešnejših skupin živih bitij na
Zemlji. Zaradi premajhne raziskanosti ter zavajajočih strategij in taktik, ki jih
uporabljajo, jih težko prepoznamo in pogosto ne razumemo, kako v resnici
vplivajo na nas.
Večinoma si
predstavljamo, da so paraziti prostemu očesu nevidna bitja, ki naseljujejo
organizme živih bitij. Sama pa sem prepričana, da parazitske tvorbe obstajajo
in se razvijajo tudi v tkivu sodobne družbe — pogosto do neslutenih
razsežnosti. Vse to odpira vprašanje: ali so paraziti res le biološki pojav —
ali pa so tudi del sodobne družbe?
Skozi nedavne
ugotovitve skupine znanstvenikov z univerze v Leedsu, ki so razvozlali, kako
lahko tako majhen enocelični parazit, kot je Toxoplasma gondii,
spreminja vedenje svojega gostitelja, ter skozi razlage filozofa in pionirja
računalniške znanosti Jarona Lanierja lahko uvidimo, da lastniki družbenih
omrežij uporabljajo enake strategije za spreminjanje vedenja svojih
uporabnikov, kot jih uporablja ta protozojski parazit.
Toxoplasma
gondii je enocelični
parazit, ki se lahko razmnožuje samo v črevesju mačk. Da pride do tja, mora
najprej okužiti vmesnega gostitelja — pogosto miši ali podgane. Ko miš zaužije
parazitove ciste (npr. iz zemlje ali hrane), se parazit razširi po njenem
telesu in se naseli v možganih, kjer tvori majhne ciste.
To je najbolj
fascinanten del. Toxoplasma ne uniči možganov — preoblikuje jih. Najbolj
vpliva na amigdalo (center za strah), sisteme za nagrajevanje in odziv na
vonjave. Namesto da bi miš čutila strah pred vonjem mačjega urina, začne ta
vonj nanjo delovati privlačno. To ni metafora — to je izmerjen nevrobiološki
učinek. Parazit to doseže tako, da zmanjša aktivnost centrov za strah, poveča
dopaminske signale in spremeni povezave med amigdalo in vohalnim sistemom.
Rezultat je presenetljiv: miš izgubi prirojen strah pred mačkami, se jim
približuje in doživlja celo neke vrste erotično vzburjenje.
Ker se lahko
parazit razmnožuje samo v mački, je izguba strahu ključna. Ko miš izgubi
previdnost, je veliko bolj verjetno, da jo mačka ujame in poje. S tem parazit
doseže svoj cilj: vrne se v mačje črevo, kjer lahko dokonča svoj življenjski
cikel.
Naj dodam še
nekaj najbolj osupljivih primerov: gliva Ophiocordyceps prevzame nadzor
nad mravljami in jih spremeni v »zombije«. Parazit Dicrocoelium dendriticum
prisili mravljo, da spleza na travno bilko, da jo poje krava. Ti primeri niso
le biološke zanimivosti — so metafore, ki nam pomagajo razumeti, kaj se dogaja
v sodobnih družbah.
Ko enkrat razumemo, kako mojstrsko paraziti preoblikujejo vedenje
svojih gostiteljev, postane skoraj neizogibno, da podobne vzorce prepoznamo
tudi v strukturah sodobne družbe.
Finančni
kapitalizem kot endoparazit družbe. Endoparaziti živijo znotraj telesa gostitelja in iz
njega črpajo hranila. Podobno delujejo deli sodobnega finančnega sistema.
Ekonomist Michael Hudson opozarja, da finančne elite ustvarjajo bogastvo brez
ustvarjanja realne vrednosti, rentništvo nadomešča produktivnost, dolg postane
orodje izčrpavanja, davčne oaze pa delujejo kot skrivališča parazitov.
Gostitelj — realno gospodarstvo — izgublja vitalnost, medtem ko parazit raste.
Digitalni
parazitizem: algoritmi kot nevroparaziti. Če lahko enocelični organizem spremeni vedenje miši,
zakaj ne bi to zmogle tudi tehnološke platforme? Algoritmi družbenih omrežij
izkoriščajo dopaminske odzive, spodbujajo kompulzivno uporabo, spreminjajo
vedenjske vzorce, polarizirajo družbo in monetizirajo pozornost. Primer
Cambridge Analytica je pokazal, da lahko digitalni sistemi vplivajo celo na
politične procese. Tako kot Toxoplasma preoblikuje možgane miši, tako
algoritmi preoblikujejo naše navade, izbire in prepričanja.
Ekstraktivne
industrije kot ektoparaziti planeta. Ektoparaziti živijo na površini gostitelja in iz
njega črpajo vire. Naftna, rudarska in gozdarska industrija delujejo na podoben
način: izčrpavajo naravne vire, uničujejo ekosisteme, puščajo degradirane
pokrajine in prelagajo stroške na lokalne skupnosti. Planet kot gostitelj
izgublja sposobnost regeneracije.
Iz naštetih
primerov lahko sklepam, da je finančni kapitalizem, kot ga danes živimo v ZDA
in zahodnem svetu, v svojem bistvu parazitska entiteta, ki za svoj obstoj
uporablja taktike in strategije parazitov ter s pomočjo investiranja in razvoja
tehnoloških orodij za manipuliranje z ljudmi pospešeno spreminja svet v
idealnega gostitelja.
Zaključek
Razumevanje
parazitov nam razkriva, da je meja med biološkimi in družbenimi sistemi veliko
tanjša, kot si želimo priznati. V naravi paraziti uspevajo zaradi svoje
sposobnosti manipulacije, prikritega delovanja in izkoriščanja virov gostitelja
— in prav te lastnosti lahko prepoznamo tudi v delovanju sodobnih družbenih
struktur. Finančni kapitalizem, lastniki digitalnih platform in tehnološki
giganti so razvili sofisticirane mehanizme vplivanja na vedenje posameznikov,
ki uporabljajo strategije, značilne za biološke parazite.
Če lahko
enocelični organizem, kot je Toxoplasma gondii, spremeni vedenje svojega
gostitelja, zakaj bi dvomili, da lahko to počnejo tudi kompleksni sistemi, ki
razpolagajo z neprimerljivo večjo močjo, podatki in tehnološkimi orodji? V obeh
primerih gre za isto logiko: za preživetje in rast je treba oblikovati
gostitelja tako, da služi interesom parazita.
Zato je
ključno, da se kot družba naučimo prepoznavati parazitske vzorce, ki se
skrivajo v ekonomskih modelih, digitalnih okoljih in političnih strukturah.
Šele ko razumemo, kako delujejo, lahko razvijemo obrambo pred njimi — tako kot
se organizem brani pred biološkimi zajedavci. Paraziti bodo vedno obstajali;
vprašanje je le, ali bomo ostali pasivni gostitelji ali pa bomo razvili
sposobnost, da prepoznamo in omejimo tiste, ki iz nas črpajo čas, zdravo
okolje, energijo, pozornost in prihodnost.
Alenka Sottler
ERA OF PARASITES
Humans often
believe we have risen far above other organisms and achieved an exceptional
level of development. Yet if we consider that only about 1% of our genes differ
from those of the fruit fly Drosophila, we may rightfully conclude that we
behave in ways strikingly similar to all other living beings. We, too, practice
reciprocal altruism, we cheat, and we parasitize.
Throughout the
history of political thought, the metaphor of the parasite appears again and
again, as if thinkers intuitively sensed that parasitism is one of the
fundamental forces shaping social life. Marx described capital as “dead labor
that attaches itself to living labor and drains it,” an organism without
vitality that survives only by feeding on the energy of others. Lenin spoke of
“parasitic capitalism,” expanding at the expense of society like a tumor
growing from the body while simultaneously weakening it.
Interest in
parasites is once again rising in culture and science. In 1995, Japanese writer
Hideaki Sena published the science‑fiction novella Parasite Eve, which inspired
films, video games, and manga. Bong Joon‑ho’s film Parasite became a global
metaphor for social predation. American economist Michael Hudson warns of
economic parasitism, in which financial elites drain the real economy without
giving anything back. And Jaron Lanier has shown that parasitism is no longer
merely an economic or political metaphor but is becoming a technological
reality. Digital platforms, he argues, do not merely observe people — they
reshape them. Algorithms latch onto human attention, redirect it, reshape it,
and feed themselves. Just as biological parasites alter the behavior of their
hosts, digital systems alter the behavior of their users — quietly, invisibly,
relentlessly. And perhaps this is the most unsettling truth: the parasites
revolutionary thinkers once described have today found their most refined,
algorithmic form.
The study of
parasites and their ability to alter the behavior of hosts and intermediate
hosts opens an entirely new field in neuroscience. The strange, dark, eerie,
and at the same time fascinating world of parasites may influence us far more
than we imagine, explains neuroscientist Robert Sapolsky. Parasites enter our
bodies and exploit them. Their astonishing behavior is directed toward
completing their life cycle, increasing their offspring, evading the host’s
immune system, and ensuring transmission to new hosts. To achieve this, they
have developed a wide array of highly effective behavioral strategies and are
therefore among the most successful groups of organisms on Earth. Due to their
deceptive strategies and insufficient research, we often fail to recognize them
and do not fully understand how they affect us.
We usually imagine
parasites as invisible creatures inhabiting the bodies of living beings. Yet I
am convinced that parasitic formations also exist — and evolve — within the
tissue of modern society, often to unimaginable proportions. This raises a
crucial question: are parasites truly only a biological phenomenon, or are they
also embedded in the structures of contemporary society?
Recent findings
from a research group at the University of Leeds, who uncovered how a tiny
single‑celled parasite like Toxoplasma gondii can manipulate the behavior of
its host, together with the insights of philosopher and computer‑science
pioneer Jaron Lanier, reveal that the owners of social‑media platforms use
strategies strikingly similar to those of this protozoan parasite.
Toxoplasma gondii
can reproduce only in the intestines of cats. To get there, it must first
infect an intermediate host — often a mouse or rat. Once the mouse ingests the
parasite’s cysts, Toxoplasma spreads through its body and settles in the brain,
forming tiny cysts.
This is the most
fascinating part. Toxoplasma does not destroy the brain — it rewires it. It
affects the amygdala (the fear center), reward systems, and olfactory
responses. Instead of feeling fear when smelling cat urine, the mouse becomes
attracted to it. This is not a metaphor — it is a measured neurobiological
effect. The parasite achieves this by reducing fear‑center activity, increasing
dopamine signaling, and altering connections between the amygdala and the
olfactory system. The result is astonishing: the mouse loses its innate fear of
cats, approaches them, and even experiences a form of sexual arousal.
Because the
parasite can reproduce only in cats, this behavioral shift is essential. A
fearless mouse is far more likely to be caught and eaten. Thus the parasite
reaches its goal: it returns to the cat’s intestine, where it can complete its
life cycle.
Other examples are
equally striking: the fungus Ophiocordyceps takes control of ants and turns
them into “zombies.” The parasite Dicrocoelium dendriticum forces an ant to
climb a blade of grass so that a cow will eat it. These are not merely
biological curiosities — they are metaphors that help us understand what is
happening in modern societies.
Consider a few
examples of social parasitism:
Financial capitalism as an
endoparasite of society.
Endoparasites live inside the host’s body and draw nutrients from it. Parts of
the modern financial system operate in much the same way. Economist Michael
Hudson warns that financial elites generate wealth without creating real value;
rent-seeking replaces productivity, debt becomes a tool of extraction, and tax
havens function as hiding places for parasites.The parasitic FIRE sector
consists of finance, insurance, and real estate. Its host is the economy. The
banking sector is essentially parasitic because it produces no value of its
own, yet raises the cost of buying a house or apartment. It siphons money from
people’s incomes and from public budgets. Citizens must pay banks ever‑increasing
amounts simply to service interest payments. The host — the real economy —
loses vitality while the parasite grows.
Digital
parasitism: algorithms as neuroparasites. If a
single‑celled organism can alter the behavior of a mouse, why wouldn’t
technological platforms be capable of similar manipulation? Social‑media
algorithms exploit dopamine responses, encourage compulsive use, reshape
behavioral patterns, polarize society, and monetize attention. The Cambridge
Analytica scandal showed that digital systems can influence political
processes. Just as Toxoplasma rewires the mouse brain, algorithms reshape our
habits, choices, and beliefs.
Extractive
industries as ektoparasites of the planet. Ectoparasites
live on the surface of the host and drain its resources. Oil, mining, and
logging industries operate similarly: they deplete natural resources, destroy
ecosystems, leave degraded landscapes, and shift the costs onto local communities.
The planet as host is losing its ability to regenerate.
From these
examples, we may conclude that financial capitalism, as it exists today in the
United States and the Western world, is in its essence a parasitic entity — one
that uses the tactics and strategies of biological parasites and, through
investment and technological tools of behavioral manipulation, is rapidly
transforming the world into an ideal host.
Conclusion
Understanding
parasites reveals that the boundary between biological and social systems is
far thinner than we like to believe. In nature, parasites thrive through
manipulation, concealment, and the extraction of the host’s resources — and
these same traits can be recognized in the functioning of modern social
structures. Financial capitalism, digital platforms, and technological giants
have developed sophisticated mechanisms for influencing human behavior that
mirror the strategies of biological parasites.
If a single‑celled
organism like Toxoplasma gondii can alter the behavior of its host, why would
we doubt that complex systems with vastly greater power, data, and
technological tools can do the same? In both cases, the logic is identical: to
survive and grow, the parasite must shape the host to serve its interests.
It is therefore
essential that we learn to recognize parasitic patterns hidden in economic
models, digital environments, and political structures. Only by understanding
how they operate can we develop defenses — just as an organism defends itself
against biological parasites. Parasites will always exist; the question is
whether we remain passive hosts or develop the ability to identify and limit
those who drain our time, our environment, our energy, our attention, and our
future.
Alenka Sottler
6. 2. 2026

















